Vickie Li-Hua

Roll-up tobacco cigarettes are not any safer. They contain the same cancer-causing chemicals as manufactured cigarettes.

Tar is a sticky-brown substance that collects in the lungs when you breath in cigarette smoke. It can stain fingers and teeth a yellow-brown colour.

Tar contains cancer-causing chemicals. But it can cause more than just lung cancer. It also increases the risk of other lung diseases. This includes emphysema and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

Cigarette smoke contains a poisonous gas called carbon monoxide. You can’t smell, see or taste it.

Carbon monoxide stops your blood from carrying as much oxygen. This means your heart must work harder, and your organs don’t get the amount of oxygen they need. This increases your risk of heart disease and stroke.

Nicotine is a very addictive drug. Most people who smoke regularly don't do so out of choice – it’s because they have a nicotine addiction.

Some people associate smoking with feeling less stressed and anxious. But this is only because it reduces the unpleasant symptoms of nicotine withdrawal for a short time.

But nicotine is harmless compared to other substances in tobacco smoke. And studies have shown that nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) doesn't cause cancer.

NRT helps people deal with cravings when they are trying to cut down or stop smoking. It comes in many forms including patches, lozenges or gum.

Find out more on our how do I stop smoking page.

At least 70 of the chemicals found in tobacco smoke cause cancer. Many of these cancer-causing chemicals in tobacco smoke have other surprising uses.

There is no such thing as safe tobacco.

Smoking filtered, low-tar, or ‘light’ variations of cigarettes doesn't reduce overall risk of disease.

And since 2003 it's been against the law to call tobacco products ‘light’, ‘mild’ or ‘low-tar’ versions. Using these words can make people wrongly believe that they are safer or healthier options.

Each cigarette you smoke can lead to DNA damage. And it is the build-up of damage in the same cell that leads to cancer.

Here are some of the ways that harmful chemicals in tobacco smoke can cause damage in the body:

The DNA in all our cells controls how they grow and behave. If DNA is damaged, things can go wrong.

Some chemicals in cigarette smoke cause damage to parts of the DNA that normally protect our cells from cancer.  And this can lead to cancer cells growing out of control.

This is because there are chemicals in tobacco smoke that can make other harmful chemicals stick more strongly to DNA.

There are also chemicals that stop our cells from repairing DNA damage. This makes it even more likely that damaged cells will turn cancerous.

For example, chemicals in cigarette smoke kill cilia. Cilia are the little hairs which usually keep our airways clear from dirt and infections.

This means people who smoke are less able to handle toxic chemicals than those with healthy lungs and blood.

If you smoke, the best thing you can do for your health is to stop – it could even save you thousands of pounds each year. The NHS has a calculator to work out how much you could save by stopping smoking.

Stopping can be difficult, but it is possible. And the number of people who have stopped smoking is increasing.

Using prescription medicine with support of a free, local stop smoking service, is most likely to help you to stop for good. But how you chose to quit is up to you.

Market value of equity is the total dollar value of a company's equity and is also known as market capitalization. This measure of a company's value is calculated by multiplying the current stock price by the total number of outstanding shares. A company's market value of equity is therefore always changing as these two input variables change. It is used to measure a company's size and helps investors diversify their investments across companies of different sizes and different levels of risk.

Investors looking to calculate market value of equity can find the total number of shares outstanding by looking to the equity section of a company's balance sheet.

A company's market value of equity can be thought of as the total value of the company decided by investors. The market value of equity can shift significantly throughout a trading day, particularly if there are significant news items like earnings. Large companies tend to be more stable in terms of market value of equity owing to the number and diversity of investors they have. Small, thinly-traded companies can easily see double digit shifts in the market value of equity because of a relatively small number of transactions pushing the stock up or down. This is also why small companies can be targets for market manipulation.

Market value of equity is calculated by multiplying the number of shares outstanding by the current share price. For example, on March 28, 2019, Apple stock was trading at $188.72 per share. As of this date, the company's stock buy back program has lowered the shares outstanding from over 6 billion to 4,715,280,000. So the market equity of capitalization is calculated as follows:

Stock Price ($188.72) x Shares Outstanding (4,715,280,000) = $889,867,641,600

For simplicity, people usually quote the above market value of equity as $889.9 billion.

Market value of equity can be compared to other valuations like book value and enterprise value. A company's enterprise value incorporates its market value of equity into the equation along with total debt minus cash and cash equivalents to provide a rough idea of a company's takeover valuation.

The market value of equity is also distinct from the book value of equity. The book value of equity is based on stockholders' equity, which is a line item on the company's balance sheet. A company's market value of equity differs from its book value of equity because the book value of equity focuses on owned assets and owed liabilities. The market value of equity is generally believed to price in some of the company's growth potential beyond its current balance sheet. If the book value is above the market value of equity, however, it may be due to market oversight. This means the company is a potential value buy.

In general, there are three different levels of market capitalization, and each level has its own profile. Companies with a market capitalization of less than $2 billion are considered small capitalization, or small caps. Companies with a market capitalization of between $2 billion and $10 billion are considered medium capitalization stocks, also referred to as mid-caps. Companies with a market capitalization over $10 billion are considered large capitalization, or large caps.

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· Cited by 8 Converts the detector response to units of exposure quanta per area (this absorbs the gain factor that is often seen in the DQE equation )

If you're invited for a quant interview, you're probably better than most of the posters here already.You get up to speed on time series models by reading books on R and Python.

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