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As far back as the 1400s, European nations made incursions into Africa, largely to facilitate the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Yet, for centuries, tropical diseases and navigational challenges restricted most of their activities to coastal areas. In 1870, by which time the slave trade had subsided, Europeans controlled only about 10 percent of the continent.

By 1885, however, the so-called Scramble for Africa was fully underway, with the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Spain, and Portugal carving up virtually the entire continent among themselves. At colonialism’s peak, only Liberia, created for the re-settlement of free Black Americans, and Ethiopia remained independent.

A relative newcomer to the game, Italy began its colonial military exploits in 1885, when, with Britain’s encouragement, it occupied the Red Sea port of Massawa. From there, it spread out along the Horn of Africa, establishing the colony of Eritrea—on land formerly controlled by Ethiopia—and occupying much of present-day Somalia as well. Its military presence particularly ramped up following an 1887 battle, when some 500 Italian soldiers were killed in an ambush.

“At that time, to be a big power you need at least two things,” says Haile Larebo, an associate professor at Morehouse College, who specializes in African colonial history. “You need a navy…and you need colonies.” He adds that the Italians were “simply mimicking others,” such as the British and French.

In 1889, Italy signed a treaty with Ethiopia’s emperor, Menelik II, who recognized the Italian claim to Eritrea in exchange for a loan of arms and money. But a major disagreement arose, exacerbated by differences between the Italian and Amharic versions of the text, over whether the treaty had turned Ethiopia into an Italian protectorate, without control of its external affairs.

Menelik, who claimed to be descended from the biblical King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, and his wife, Taytu Betul, a shrewd opponent of European expansionism, prepared to defend their sovereignty. In addition to securing modern weapons, they launched a public relations campaign with the help of several Europeans sympathetic to their cause.

Swiss-born engineer Alfred Ilg, for example, who served as Menelik’s de facto chief of staff, helped modernize the country’s infrastructure and, during trips to Europe, reportedly promoted Ethiopia as “Africa’s Switzerland.” Other Europeans published admiring articles about the Ethiopian court, sometimes referring to the devout Menelik as “Africa’s Christian monarch.” Menelik became somewhat of a celebrity, and, later on, even traded phonograph messages with England’s Queen Victoria. “He’s a down-to-earth monarch,” says Haile, with a “charming” and “magnetic” personality.

During his rise to power, Menelik had viciously mutilated rival Ethiopians, branded slaves with the sign of the cross, destroyed mosques, and encouraged pillaging. Nonetheless, with the Italians presenting a common threat, Menelik united the country’s fractious provincial rulers behind him. When he called for a mass mobilization in September 1895, he was able to raise around 80,000 to 120,000 troops, with men pouring in from almost all of Ethiopia’s regions and ethnic groups.

Meanwhile, Italy had advanced to within about 250 miles of Addis Ababa, the newly founded Ethiopian capital. Menelik, accompanied by Taytu, led his army north on what would become a five-month march totaling nearly 600 miles. As Raymond Jonas, author of “The Battle of Adwa: African Victory in the Age of Empire,” writes, Menelik covered more ground than either William Tecumseh Sherman on his March to the Sea or Napoleon on his ill-fated invasion of Russia.

In December 1895 and January 1896, the Ethiopian army annihilated a vanguard Italian column at Amba Alage and then besieged an Italian fort at Mekele, forcing its surrender in large part by implementing Taytu’s strategy of cutting off the water supply. The Ethiopians next slipped past the main, entrenched Italian force and moved on to the Adwa area. Throughout, Menelik allegedly spread false rumors, downplaying the size and cohesiveness of his troops. “This is one of the 19th century’s greatest campaigns,” Jonas said on a 2012 podcast.

Cognizant of his lack of food, water, and accurate maps, Italian commanding officer Oreste Baratieri considered retreating into Eritrea. But, on February 25, 1896, he received a telegram from Italian Prime Minister Francesco Crispi essentially goading him into action. His subordinate generals likewise pushed for a decisive engagement, prompting Baratieri, who had earlier vowed to bring Menelik back to Italy in a cage, to advance three brigades.

When the fighting broke out on March 1, the Italians and their African auxiliaries quickly found themselves disorganized, highly outnumbered, and exposed in inhospitable terrain. By day’s end, they were in full retreat, leaving behind their artillery and roughly 3,000 prisoners. “[Menelik] outsmarted and outflanked the Italians in every aspect,” Haile says. Many women contributed to the victory, serving as water distributers, medical care providers, prison guards, and morale boosters. Taytu herself commanded her own personal army.

Overall, the Ethiopians inflicted a casualty rate of up to 70 percent (while also suffering relatively heavy losses). They brought the Italian prisoners back to Addis Ababa, in what Jonas calls a “racial turning of the tables that put whites at the mercy of blacks in significant numbers for the first time.” Treated well, they were gradually released, whereas, in contrast, the Africans fighting alongside the Italians purportedly had their right hands and left feet amputated.

In the aftermath of the battle, Crispi’s government collapsed and Baratieri was put on trial. (He was acquitted.) Moreover, Italy agreed to recognize Ethiopian independence, as did other European powers, which negotiated with Menelik to settle the country’s borders.

Menelik’s victory had farther-ranging consequences as well. Before Adwa, according to Haile, Europeans generally thought of Africans as primitive savages, who would all be ruled over and eventually displaced by Europeans. But afterwards, Haile says, Europeans were forced to take “Africans much more seriously,” even as racist attitudes remained entrenched.

Ice Cream Lovers

Address: 63 St Albans Rd, East Geelong VIC 3219, Australia

“With working legs comes a whole new world of possibilities” The proclamation that a fulfilling life is impossible if you don't have working

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Picnic Cafe

Address: Mathers Lane, 6a Liverpool St, Hobart TAS 7000, Australia

Dietitians and nutritionists are experts in food and diet and help people maintain good health and prevent or treat health conditions. With various credentials and qualifications, dietitians and nutritionists are often mislabeled. The two professions share some similarities in responsibilities; however, the titles should not be used interchangeably, as the role of dietitian is more regulated than that of a nutritionist.

This article will explain some important differences between dietitians and nutritionists in their education and qualifications, scope of expertise and careers paths.

The word dietitians typically refers to registered dietitians (RDs). Compared with nutritionists, the main difference is that RDs tend to have more education and credentials. Depending on the state in which you practice, you can call yourself a nutritionist without any formal nutrition education, training, licensing or certification, but it’s illegal to call yourself a dietitian without proper credentialing.

Typically, anyone who completes a degree in nutrition can refer to themselves as a nutritionist. This could be varying levels of education: a bachelor’s degree in nutrition, a master’s in nutrition or a Master of Public Health with a concentration in nutrition. The number of years of education and training needed will depend on what credential you choose to obtain, such as certified nutrition specialist (CNS) or certified/clinical nutritionist (CN).

For example, certified nutrition specialist (CNS) is a certification regulated by the Board of Certification for Nutrition Specialists (BCNS). Eligibility to be a certified nutrition specialist includes:

Prospective dietitians must first earn a minimum of a bachelor’s degree accredited by the Accreditation Council for Education in Nutrition and Dietetics (ACEND) and earn a verification statement from a Didactic Program in Dietetics (DPD). Many people complete a degree in clinical nutrition, dietetics or public health nutrition that includes a DPD.

Then, future dietitians should complete at least 1,200 hours in an internship under the supervision of a licensed professional, combined with undergraduate or graduate studies. With all of the above completed, students might be eligible to sit for the Commission on Dietetic Registration (CDR) exam. If you plan to take the exam later, it is important to know that by 2024, a graduate degree will be the minimum requirement to sit for the CDR exam. Besides regular master’s in nutrition and dietetics programs, ACEND-accredited MPH/RD programs can qualify students to sit for the CDR exam.

Some states also have additional licensing requirements. RDs must complete continuing education throughout their careers to maintain the certifications.

Nutritionists typically work with individuals or populations to teach them more about general nutrition, food and health. Their focus is on food behavior. This includes working with individuals to devise and implement meal plans that improve the individual’s or family’s nutrition.

Nutritionists may work in:

Limitations: Nutritionists are limited in what they can do in many states. For example, because nutritionists do not necessarily have a certification, license or clinical experience, they might not be allowed to perform specific nutrition counseling or diagnose and treat medical conditions. Many states and insurance providers place limitations on specific nutrition counseling. Some states allow nutritionists to perform nutrition counseling, but they cannot seek reimbursement from insurance. There are states that require nutritionists to be licensed before they can provide nutrition counseling, and others require a professional to be an RD to lawfully provide nutrition counseling.

Dietitians teach people and populations about nutrition, food and health. They work in all the same types of settings as nutritionists, including schools, hospitals, long-term care facilities, government health facilities, research and sports.

A significant difference between a nutritionist and a dietitian is that the dietitian can help diagnose and treat illnesses. Clinical dietitians in hospitals, long-term care facilities, in- and outpatient clinics and private practice often work with individuals experiencing eating disorders, substance abuse or medical conditions with symptoms that can be improved or managed with a more specific diet or meal planning. RDs often collaborate with mental health professionals to screen for eating disorders.

Dietitians create unique nutrition plans for their clients and help them maintain healthy eating habits based on their medical needs. This usually looks like:

In a larger setting, RDs may create and implement meal plans in hospital cafeterias, schools and food corporations. They might supervise other dietitians, food purchasers, kitchen staff and other employees responsible for implementing a meal plan.

Dietitians also can work with larger populations regarding nutrition and food issues. Some work in government positions, insurance companies and nonprofits.

The salary information for dietitians and nutritionists can be confusing because the two professions are often considered simultaneously. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) reported that the 2020 median pay for dietitians and nutritionists was $63,090 per year.

There is a considerable difference, however, between the median annual pay of the lowest 10% of earners and the highest 10%: $39,840 and over $90,000 in 2020, respectively.

These salary differences likely occur because of differences in position, geographic area, level of education and experience.

The career outlook of both is good. The BLS reports that there were 73,000 dietitian and nutritionist jobs in 2020, and the field is expected to grow 11% by 2030, much faster than the average for all occupations.

The two main differences between a registered dietitian (RD) and a nutritionist are:

That being said, the tasks each professional is allowed to perform depend on state law. In the United States, many people can call themselves nutritionists though there is a more protected title of a certified nutrition specialist (CNS). The CNS title usually refers to someone who has met all requirements to pass the Board for Certification of Nutrition Specialists exam, which is why the title is protected. Unlike registered dietitians who prescribe nutrition therapy, CNSs organize public health programs that teach about healthy diets.

Which career is the right path for you depends on your career goals:

It also is important to consider the laws of the state where you would like to practice. Each state manages nutritionists and dietitians differently. This can influence the education and training you pursue to reach your career goals.