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An engine control unit (ECU), also called an engine control module (ECM), is a device which controls multiple systems of an internal combustion engine in a single unit. Systems commonly controlled by an ECU include the fuel injection and ignition systems.

The earliest ECUs (used by aircraft engines in the late 1930s) were mechanical-hydraulic units, however most 21st century ECUs use digital electronics.

The main functions of the ECU are typically:

The sensors used by the ECU include:

Other functions include:

In a camless piston engine (an experimental design not currently used in any production vehicles), the ECU has continuous control of when each of the intake and exhaust valves are opened and by how much.

One of the earliest attempts to use such a unitized and automated device to manage multiple engine control functions simultaneously was the created by BMW in 1939 Kommandogerät system used by the BMW 801 14-cylinder radial engine which powered the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 V5 fighter aircraft. This device replaced the 6 controls used to initiate hard acceleration with one control, however the system could cause surging and stalling problems.

In the early 1970s, the Japanese electronics industry began producing integrated circuits and microcontrollers used for controlling engines. The Ford EEC (Electronic Engine Control) system, which utilized the Toshiba TLCS-12 microprocessor, went into mass production in 1975.

The first Bosch engine management system was the Motronic 1.0, which was introduced in the 1979 BMW 7 Series (E23) This system was based on the existing Bosch Jetronic fuel injection system, to which control of the ignition system was added.

In 1981, a Delco Electronics ECU was used by several Chevrolet and Buick engines to control their fuel system (a closed-loop carburettor) and ignition system. By 1988, Delco Electronics was the leading procuder of engine management systems, producing over 28,000 ECUs per day.

Such systems are used for many internal combustion engines in other applications. In aeronautical applications, the systems are known as "FADECs" (Full Authority Digital Engine Controls). This kind of electronic control is less common in piston-engined light fixed-wing aircraft and helicopters than in automobiles. This is due to the common configuration of a carbureted engine with a magneto ignition system that does not require electrical power generated by an alternator to run, which is considered a safety advantage.

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Forms are the most generic way of accepting input from the sites users. A form is a set of HTML input elements enclosed in the

Form being the most common way of input on the Web, any sensible web-framework must provide sophisticated ways of handling form inputs. Form inputs also pose most of the security threats a web application can face. Hence it is essential to understand how to properly handle form inputs on any framework.

The Django's Form class gives a logical representation of an HTML form, defines how it should behave and how it appears in the HTML. Before we start working with the Form class of Django, let us build a basic HTML form - a user login form with just two input fields. The form in HTML will look like this:

There are few things to notice. The above form has two inputs - a text field named username (the name attribute in the html input field is what determines the name of input field) and a password field named password - and a submit button. The form uses POST method to submit form data to server. The action attribute of the form determines the url to which the form data has to be submitted.

To handle this data on the server-side we define a form as follows.

Though the password input in the html is of password type in the html, it is just text and must be processed as a CharField.

Once a form is submitted to a view, we create the form object from the POST data (or GET) as follows:

Observe that the fieldnames in the form are same as the name of the input fields of the HTML forms. This lets us directly initialize the form with the request.POST dictionary (otherwise we need to create a dictionary that maps form field names to the HTML input names).

Creating form object looks fancier but what advantage does that give us? The first advantage that the Forms provide us is the validation of input. Input validation is extremely important in terms of security of web applications. The OWASP documentation describes extensively why we need to validate the input data. And the field types allowed in forms are documented here.

Form data can be validated using the is_valid() method. The method returns True if the data is valid and False otherwise. In our example, we have defined our login form with two fields each with argument max_length set to 20. When we execute the is_valid() method of the form, the form checks that the each field's value length is less than 20. If any of the field value is greater than 20, the method returns false. Once the is_valid() method is called and the data is valid, the data is made available as cleaned_data attribute of the class.

Based on the is_valid() method our login view will develop like this.

We might need to do some additional checks on the data validity which we will discuss on a separate blog post how to add validators and write custom validators.

The another advantage that forms provide is handling the appearance of HTML forms. Earlier we have created a login form in HTML. In practice we do not to write any of that HTML. All we need to do is to use the form in our templates with {{ form }}, and jinja (Django's templating engine) will take care of generating all the HTML necessary. Our template rendering the form will look like this:

This renders in the template as

The rendering of the form fields is controlled with widgets. The widget argument in our login form specifies that the password field must be a of type password even though the form field type is CharField().

Most of the times our user inputs are very close to our models, after all the input data is stored in models. Django provides us with Model Forms, the forms that can be built from models.

Building a form from a model is really easy. We just need to extend the django.forms.ModelForm class, specify the model (that we want to built the form from) in the Meta class and specify the fields to include. We will first define a model before building our model form. Here is our model.

Now, we define our model form like:

The form's model Meta attribute specifies the model to use to build the form and the fields attribute specifies the fields that need to be included in the form. The fields attribute takes a list (or a tuple) of model field names. The special string '__all__' specifies that all the fields in the model needs to be included. We can also specify only the fields that need to be excluded with exclude attribute which will be a list (or a tuple) of field names that should be excluded. Only one of fields and exclude attributes can be used in model form.

The table on model form fields states how each model field type is mapped as a form field type. Validation rules of the form fields are automatically built based on the rules on the model fields (length limitations, foreign key fields etc.).

Model forms provide a close binding of forms to the models and allow us to save the data into model directly with the save() method. In our example of AuthorForm model form, once the data is validated with the is_valid() method we can use the form.save() method to create a model instance (saved to database). The method will return a model instance if it is successful.

Using the model form AuthorForm to create a model instance of Author, our view would look like this.

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