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3.4.1. Religious Morality

Religious morality refers to a human being in relationship to a supernatural being or beings. In the Jewish and Christian traditions, for example, the first three of the Ten Commandments (See the figure below) pertain to this kind of morality. These commandments deal with a person’s relationship with God, not with any other human beings. By violating any of these three commandments, a person could, according to this particular code of ethics, act immorally toward God without acting immorally toward anyone else.

The Ten Commandments

3.4.2. Morality and Nature

“Morality and nature” refers to a human being in relationship to nature. Natural morality has been prevalent in all primitive cultures, such as that of the Native American, and in cultures of the Far East. More recently, the Western tradition has also become aware of the significance of dealing with nature in a moral manner. Some see nature as being valuable only for the good of humanity, but many others have come to see it as a good in itself, worthy of moral consideration. With this viewpoint there is no question about whether a Robinson Crusoe would be capable of moral or immoral actions on a desert island by himself. In the morality and nature aspect, he could be considered either moral or immoral, depending upon his actions toward the natural things around him.

3.4.3. Individual Morality

Individual morality refers to individuals in relation to themselves and to an individual code of morality that may or may not be sanctioned by any society or religion. It allows for a “higher morality,” which can be found within the individual rather than beyond this world in some supernatural realm. A person may or may not perform some particular act, not because society, law, or religion says he may or may not, but because he himself thinks it is right or wrong from within his own conscience.

3.4.4. Social Morality

Social morality concerns a human being in relation to other human beings. It is probably the most important aspect of morality, in that it cuts across all of the other aspects and is found in more ethical systems than any of the others. Returning briefly to the desert-island example, most ethicists probably would state that Robinson Crusoe is incapable of any really moral or immoral action except toward himself and nature. Such action would be minimal when compared with the potential for morality or immorality if there were nine other people on the island whom he could subjugate, torture, or destroy. Many ethical systems would allow that what he would do to himself is strictly his business, “as long as it doesn’t harm anyone else.”

3.5. Who is Morally/Ethically Responsible?

Morality pertains to human beings and only to human beings; all else is speculation. If one wants to attribute morality to supernatural beings, one has to do so solely on faith. If one wants to hold animals or plants morally responsible for destructive acts against each other or against humans, then one has to ignore most of the evidence that science has given us concerning the instinctual behavior of such beings and the evidence of our own everyday observations.

Recent experimentation with the teaching of language to animals suggests that they are at least minimally capable of developing some thought processes similar to those of humans. It is even possible that they might be taught morality in the future, as humans are now. If this were to occur, then animals could be held morally responsible for their actions. At the present time, however, most evidence seems to indicate that they, as well as plants, should be classified as either non-moral or amoral – that is, they should be considered either as having no moral sense or as being out of the moral sphere altogether.

Therefore, when we use the terms moral and ethical, we are using them in reference only to human beings. We do not hold a wolf morally responsible for killing a sheep, or an eagle morally responsible for killing a chicken. We may kill the wolf or fox for having done this act, but we do not kill it because we hold the animal morally responsible. We do it because we don‘t want any more of our sheep or chickens to be killed. At this point in the world‘s history, only human beings can be moral or immoral, and therefore only human beings should be held morally responsible for their actions and behavior.

3.5.1. Moral Judgments

Moral judgments refer to deciding what is right and what is wrong in human relations. Individuals are continually judging their own conduct and that of their fellows. They approve of some acts and call them ―right‖ or ―good. They condemn other acts and call them ―wrong‖ or ―evil or bad. Moral judgments always have to do with the actions of human beings and, in particular, with voluntary actions – those actions freely chosen. Involuntary actions – those over which people have no control – are rarely open to moral judgment, as a person usually is not held responsible for an action that she or he did not initiate. Moral judgments are evaluative because they place value on things or relation or human actions; determine what is right or wrong, good or bad. They are also normative because they evaluate or assess the moral worth of something based on some norms or standards.

Finding the right course of action, choosing the right alternative, is not always simple. We can have no algorithm for judgment, since every application of a rule would itself need supplementing with further rules. Onora O’Neill argues that moral principles do not provide us with an ―auto-pilot for life‖ and that ―judgment is always needed in using or following – and in flouting – rules or principles, as you have saw above. When conflicts of interest arise, the solution may require the greatest sensitivity, experience, discernment, intelligence and goodwill, and even then we may doubt whether we have acted rightly. However, in judging conduct or action we have to consider motives, means, and consequences and sometimes the situation.

1. Motives: Motives, as Jesus, Kant, and others have pointed out, are basic for a determination of morality. The motive refers to the intention or why an action is done. A good motive is a prerequisite to conduct that we approve without qualification. If a good motive is present when an act, through some unforeseen factor, leads to harmful effects, we tend to disapprove less severely and to say, ―Anyway, he meant well.‖

Kant, for example, defined the good as the ―good will.‖ ―Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which can be called good without qualification, except a good will.‖ For Kant, a rational being strives to do what he or she ought to do and this is to be distinguished from an act that a person does from either inclination or self-interest. In other words, a person must act out of duty to the moral law – that is, ought what one to do. The truly moral act, for Kant, not only agrees with the moral law, but is done for the sake of the moral law – not only as duty requires but because duty requires. In Kantian thinking the seat of moral worth is the individual’s will, and the good will acts out of a sense of duty.

2. Means: Just as there may be many motives for desiring something, there may be many means for achieving it. The term means can be defined as an agency, instrument, or method used to attain an end. Though we expect people to use the best available means to carry out their purposes, we condemn them if their choice of means impresses us as unjust, cruel, or immoral. On rare occasions we may approve of an act when means are used that under other conditions would be condemned. However, there is a danger in proposing that any means may be used, provided the end is good, or that ―the end justifies the means.Once chosen, the means become part of the general effect of an act.

3. Consequences: Consequences are the effects or results of a moral decision based on a value. We expect the consequences of an act that we call ―right‖ to be good. Ordinarily, when people ask, ―what is right? they are thinking about the consequences of the action. This depends on what ethical principle is in operation. Kant agrees to the good motive, utilitarians to the result.

In general, society judges conduct ―right‖ if it proceeds from a good motive, through the use of the best available means, to consequences that are good. If these conditions are not fulfilled, we condemn the action or approve it with reservations. We rarely approve an action when the results are evil or wrong.

4. The Moral Situation: A moral situation involves moral agents – human beings who act, are empowered to make choices, and consciously make decisions. As moral agents, demands are made on us and place us under obligations: we have both duties and rights. We are faced with moral alternatives, and we can better weigh those alternatives when we have an understanding of the ingredients of the moral situation.

3.5.2. What Makes an Action Moral?

Sometimes we think of ―moral‖ means morally good. But, philosophically, it refers to an action which comes within the scope of morality, that is, an action which is morally significant either in positive way ( because it is good or right) or in a negative way (because the action is good or bad). Not all actions have a moral sense. Many of the actions we perform in life , such as putting on a raincoat, sharpening a pencil, or counting apples, standing on your head, are not in themselves either good or bad acts. Such actions are morally neutral or non-moral. By contrast, stealing from your libraries, punching people or helping the disadvantage are considered as morally significant actions. But, what makes an act enter the moral arena or what features of action make us judge them to be good or bad, right or wrong? The following are features that make an action moral:

A. A moral act involves an agent: If something is a natural event or an action performed by animals, then it is morally neutral – it does not appear on our moral radars. Humans can be moral agents, or any creatures that can freely and thoughtfully choose its actions will count as a moral agent.

B. A moral act involves intention: An intention here refers to our motives that are important to determine the rightness or wrongness of an action. If an action is done accidentally, it may be counted as a morally neutral action. However, some unintentional acts, such as those done through negligence, can be moral. Neglecting our duties, even accidentally, make us morally culpable.

C. A moral act affects others: A moral action needs not only an agent and to be deliberate but also needs to affect others (those we might call moral patients) in significant ways, that is, an action that has harmful (be it physical, psychological, emotional, or depriving others of happiness) or beneficial consequences for others.

The claim that morality only governs behavior that affects others is somewhat controversial. Some have claimed that morality also governs behavior that affects only the agent herself, such as taking recreational drugs, masturbation, and not developing one’s talents. Confusion about the content of morality arises because morality is not always distinguished from religion. Regarding self-affecting behavior as governed by morality is supported by the idea that we are created by God and are obliged to obey his commands, and so may be a holdover from the time when morality was not clearly distinguished from religion. This religious holdover might also affect the claim that some sexual practices such as homosexuality are immoral; but those who distinguish morality from religion do not regard homosexuality, per se, as a moral matter.

Generally, a moral action is one which:

3.6. Why Should Human Beings Be Moral?

The question that is worth mentioning at this point is ―Why should human beings be moral?‖ Another way of putting the problem is as follows: Is there any clear foundation or basis for morality can any reasons be found for human beings to be good and do right acts rather than be bad and do wrong acts? Let us assume for the moment that there is no supernatural morality and see if we can find any other reasons why people should be moral.

There can be no society without moral regulation; man is man only because he lives in a society; take away from man all that has a social origin and nothing is left but an animal compare with other animals.We should be moral because being moral is following the rules designed to overrule self-interest whenever it is in the interest of every one alike that everyone should set aside his interest. John Hospers

A. Argument from Enlightened Self-Interest

One can certainly argue on a basis of enlightened self-interest that it is, at the very least, generally better to be good rather than bad and to create a world and society that is good rather than one that is bad. As a matter of fact, self-interest is the sole basis of one ethical theory, ethical egoism. However, it is not being suggested at this point that one ought to pursue one‘s own self-interest. Rather, an argument is being presented that if everyone tried to do and be good and tried to avoid and prevent bad, it would be in everyone‘s self-interest. For example, if within a group of people no one killed, stole, lied, or cheated, then each member of the group would benefit. An individual member of the group could say, ―it‘s in my self-interest to do good rather than bad because I stand to benefit if I do and also because I could be ostracized or punished if I don‘t.‖ Therefore, even though it is not airtight, the argument from enlightened self-interest is compelling.

B. Argument from Tradition and Law

Related to the foregoing argument is the argument from tradition and law. This argument suggests that because traditions and laws, established over a long period of time, govern the behavior of human beings, and because these traditions and laws urge human beings to be moral rather than immoral, there are good reasons for being so. Self-interest is one reason, but another is respect for the human thought and effort that has gone into establishing such laws and traditions and transferring them from one historic period and one culture to another. This can be an attractive argument, even though it tends to suppress questioning of traditions and laws – a kind of questioning that is at the core of creative moral reasoning. It is interesting to note that most of us probably learned morality through being confronted with this argument, the religious argument, and the experiences surrounding it. Don‘t we all remember being told we should or should not do something because it was or was not in our own self-interest, because God said it was right or wrong, or because it was the way we were supposed to act in our family, school, society, and world?

C. Common Human Needs

Are there any other reasons we can give as to why human beings should be moral? If we examine human nature as empirically and rationally as we can, we discover that all human beings have many needs, desires, goals, and objectives in common. For example, people generally seem to need friendship, love, happiness, freedom, peace, creativity, and stability in their lives, not only for themselves but for others, too. It doesn‘t take much further examination to discover that in order to satisfy these needs, people must establish and follow moral principles that encourage them to cooperate with one another and that free them from fear that they will lose their lives, be mutilated, or be stolen from, lied to, cheated, severely restricted, or imprisoned.

Morality is not of course identical with following self-interest. If it were, there could be no conflict between morality and self-interest and no point in having rules overriding self-interest. John Hospers

Morality exists, in part, because of human needs and through recognition of the importance of living together in a cooperative and significant way. It may not be the case that all human beings can be convinced that they should be moral, or even that it will always be in each individual‘s self-interest to be moral. However, the question ―why should human beings be moral?‖ generally can best be answered by the statement that adhering to moral principles enables human beings to live their lives as peacefully, happily, creatively, and meaningfully as is possible.

Activity:Apply all ethical approaches presented in the chapter. Keep a record of your deliberations and conclusions using each one? Did you reach different solutions based on the theory you used? Were some of the perspectives more useful in this situation? Are you more confident after looking at the problem from a variety of perspectives? Write up your findings.

In general, in a society wherein morality is declined, crime, death, looting, instability, social deviance, suicide, human right violation/ gross human right violation/, corruption and other socio, economic and political crises will prevail. With human self-interest as strong as it is, what can motivate us to always follow the rules of morality? Asked more simply, “Why be moral?” Among the more common answers are these:

These are all good answers, and each may be a powerful motivation for the right person. With religious believers, for example, having faith in God and divine judgment might prompt them to act properly. With parents, the responsibility of raising another human being might force them to adopt a higher set of moral standards than they would otherwise. However, many of these answers won’t apply to every person: nonbelievers, nonparents, people who don’t respect themselves, people who think that they can escape punishment.

There are two distinct components to the question “Why be moral?”

From Hobbes’s perspective, morality consists of a set of rules such that, if nearly everyone follows them, then nearly everyone will flourish. These rules restrict our freedom but promote greater freedom and wellbeing. More specifically, the five social benefits of establishing and following moral rules accomplish the following:

a) Keep society from falling apart.b) Reduce human suffering.c) Promote human flourishing.d) Resolve conflicts of interest in just and orderly ways.e) Assign praise and blame, reward and punishment, and guilt.

All these benefits have in common the fact that morality is a social activity: It has to do with society, not the individual in isolation. If only one person exists on an island, no morality exists; indeed, some behavior would be better for that person than others—such as eating coconuts rather than sand—but there would not be morality in the full meaning of that term. However, as soon as a second person appears on that island, morality also appears. Morality is thus a set of rules that enable us to reach our collective goals. Imagine what society would be like if we did whatever we pleased without obeying moral rules.

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Found a workaround myself. Based on some code changes made in rst2pdf, I was able to get my code working reliably. The solution, although ugly, is to wrap all my Paragraphs in the section of the code that creates Paragraphs for the student comments inside KeepTogether. For example, I changed one relevant line to:

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