Dnyaneshwar Va

Generally, large signal or power amplifiers are used in the output stages of audio amplifier systems to drive a loudspeaker load. A typical loudspeaker has an impedance of between 4Ω and 8Ω, thus a power amplifier must be able to supply the high peak currents required to drive the low impedance speaker.

One method used to distinguish the electrical characteristics of different types of amplifiers is by “class”, and as such amplifiers are classified according to their circuit configuration and method of operation. Then Amplifier Classes is the term used to differentiate between the different amplifier types.

Amplifier Classes represent the amount of the output signal which varies within the amplifier circuit over one cycle of operation when excited by a sinusoidal input signal. The classification of amplifiers range from entirely linear operation (for use in high-fidelity signal amplification) with very low efficiency, to entirely non-linear (where a faithful signal reproduction is not so important) operation but with a much higher efficiency, while others are a compromise between the two.

Amplifier classes are mainly lumped into two basic groups. The first are the classically controlled conduction angle amplifiers forming the more common amplifier classes of A, B, AB and C, which are defined by the length of their conduction state over some portion of the output waveform, such that the output stage transistor operation lies somewhere between being “fully-ON” and “fully-OFF”.

The second set of amplifiers are the newer so-called “switching” amplifier classes of D, E, F, G, S, T etc, which use digital circuits and pulse width modulation (PWM) to constantly switch the signal between “fully-ON” and “fully-OFF” driving the output hard into the transistors saturation and cut-off regions.

The most commonly constructed amplifier classes are those that are used as audio amplifiers, mainly class A, B, AB and C and to keep things simple, it is these types of amplifier classes we will look at here in more detail.

Class A Amplifiers are the most common type of amplifier topology as they use just one output switching transistor (Bipolar, FET, IGBT, etc) within their amplifier design. This single output transistor is biased around the Q-point within the middle of its load line and so is never driven into its cut-off or saturation regions thus allowing it to conduct current over the full 360 degrees of the input cycle. Then the output transistor of a class-A topology never turns “OFF” which is one of its main disadvantages.

Class “A” amplifiers are considered the best class of amplifier design due mainly to their excellent linearity, high gain and low signal distortion levels when designed correctly. Although seldom used in high power amplifier applications due to thermal power supply considerations, class-A amplifiers are probably the best sounding of all the amplifier classes mentioned here and as such are used in high-fidelity audio amplifier designs.

To achieve high linearity and gain, the output stage of a class A amplifier is biased “ON” (conducting) all the time. Then for an amplifier to be classified as “Class A” the zero signal idle current in the output stage must be equal to or greater than the maximum load current (usually a loudspeaker) required to produce the largest output signal.

As a class A amplifier operates in the linear portion of its characteristic curves, the single output device conducts through a full 360 degrees of the output waveform. Then the class A amplifier is equivalent to a current source.

Since a class A amplifier operates in the linear region, the transistors base (or gate) DC biasing voltage should by chosen properly to ensure correct operation and low distortion. However, as the output device is “ON” at all times, it is constantly carrying current, which represents a continuous loss of power in the amplifier.

Due to this continuous loss of power class A amplifiers create tremendous amounts of heat adding to their very low efficiency at around 30%, making them impractical for high-power amplifications. Also due to the high idling current of the amplifier, the power supply must be sized accordingly and be well filtered to avoid any amplifier hum and noise. Therefore, due to the low efficiency and over heating problems of Class A amplifiers, more efficient amplifier classes have been developed.

Class B amplifiers were invented as a solution to the efficiency and heating problems associated with the previous class A amplifier. The basic class B amplifier uses two complimentary transistors either bipolar of FET for each half of the waveform with its output stage configured in a “push-pull” type arrangement, so that each transistor device amplifies only half of the output waveform.

In the class B amplifier, there is no DC base bias current as its quiescent current is zero, so that the dc power is small and therefore its efficiency is much higher than that of the class A amplifier. However, the price paid for the improvement in the efficiency is in the linearity of the switching device.

When the input signal goes positive, the positive biased transistor conducts while the negative transistor is switched “OFF”. Likewise, when the input signal goes negative, the positive transistor switches “OFF” while the negative biased transistor turns “ON” and conducts the negative portion of the signal. Thus the transistor conducts only half of the time, either on positive or negative half cycle of the input signal.

Then we can see that each transistor device of the class B amplifier only conducts through one half or 180 degrees of the output waveform in strict time alternation, but as the output stage has devices for both halves of the signal waveform the two halves are combined together to produce the full linear output waveform.

This push-pull design of amplifier is obviously more efficient than Class A, at about 50%, but the problem with the class B amplifier design is that it can create distortion at the zero-crossing point of the waveform due to the transistors dead band of input base voltages from -0.7V to +0.7.

We remember from the Transistor tutorial that it takes a base-emitter voltage of about 0.7 volts to get a bipolar transistor to start conducting. Then in a class B amplifier, the output transistor is not “biased” to an “ON” state of operation until this voltage is exceeded.

This means that the the part of the waveform which falls within this 0.7 volt window will not be reproduced accurately making the class B amplifier unsuitable for precision audio amplifier applications.

To overcome this zero-crossing distortion (also known as Crossover Distortion) class AB amplifiers were developed.

As its name suggests, the Class AB Amplifier is a combination of the “Class A” and the “Class B” type amplifiers we have looked at above. The AB classification of amplifier is currently one of the most common used types of audio power amplifier design.

The class AB amplifier is a variation of a class B amplifier as described above, except that both devices are allowed to conduct at the same time around the waveforms crossover point eliminating the crossover distortion problems of the previous class B amplifier.

The two transistors have a very small bias voltage, typically at 5 to 10% of the quiescent current to bias the transistors just above its cut-off point. Then the conducting device, either bipolar of FET, will be “ON” for more than one half cycle, but much less than one full cycle of the input signal. Therefore, in a class AB amplifier design each of the push-pull transistors is conducting for slightly more than the half cycle of conduction in class B, but much less than the full cycle of conduction of class A.

In other words, the conduction angle of a class AB amplifier is somewhere between 180o and 360o depending upon the chosen bias point as shown.

The advantage of this small bias voltage, provided by series diodes or resistors, is that the crossover distortion created by the class B amplifier characteristics is overcome, without the inefficiencies of the class A amplifier design. So the class AB amplifier is a good compromise between class A and class B in terms of efficiency and linearity, with conversion efficiencies reaching about 50% to 60%.

The Class C Amplifier design has the greatest efficiency but the poorest linearity of the classes of amplifiers mentioned here. The previous classes, A, B and AB are considered linear amplifiers, as the output signals amplitude and phase are linearly related to the input signals amplitude and phase.

However, the class C amplifier is heavily biased so that the output current is zero for more than one half of an input sinusoidal signal cycle with the transistor idling at its cut-off point. In other words, the conduction angle for the transistor is significantly less than 180 degrees, and is generally around the 90 degrees area.

While this form of transistor biasing gives a much improved efficiency of around 80% to the amplifier, it introduces a very heavy distortion of the output signal. Therefore, class C amplifiers are not suitable for use as audio amplifiers.

Due to its heavy audio distortion, class C amplifiers are commonly used in high frequency sine wave oscillators and certain types of radio frequency amplifiers, where the pulses of current produced at the amplifiers output can be converted to complete sine waves of a particular frequency by the use of LC resonant circuits in its collector circuit.

Then we have seen that the quiescent DC operating point (Q-point) of an amplifier determines the amplifier classification. Setting the position of the Q-point at half way on the load line of the amplifiers characteristics curve, the amplifier will operate as a class A amplifier. By moving the Q-point lower down the load line changes the amplifier into a class AB, B or C amplifier.

Then the class of operation of the amplifier with regards to its DC operating point can be given as:

As well as audio amplifiers there are a number of high efficiency Amplifier Classes relating to switching amplifier designs that use different switching techniques to reduce power loss and increase efficiency. Some amplifier class designs listed below use RLC resonators or multiple power-supply voltages to reduce power loss, or are digital DSP (digital signal processing) type amplifiers which use pulse width modulation (PWM) switching techniques.

We have seen here a number of classification of amplifiers ranging from linear power amplifiers to non-linear switching amplifiers, and have seen how an amplifier class differs along the amplifiers load line. The class AB, B and C amplifiers can be defined in terms of the conduction angle, θ as follows:

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2. Fill up the application form.
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As a result, it’s important to understand how credit card numbers work and how to protect your information from theft.

This article will provide an overview of credit card numbers like a hash key in a credit card, how they are used, and how to avoid common scams and fraud.

There is no such thing as a “hash key” in a credit card. However, credit cards do have a security feature called a “card verification value” (CVV), pound key, or “card security code” (CSC), which is a three or four-digit number typically found on the back of the card (for Visa, Mastercard, and Discover) or on the front of the card (for American Express).

This code is not stored on the magnetic stripe or the chip of the credit card and is intended to be used as an additional layer of security to prevent fraud in card-not-present transactions (such as online purchases).

Merchants may ask for the CVV/CSC to verify that the person making the purchase has the physical card in their possession.

It’s worth noting that the CVV/CSC is not a cryptographic hash or a key in the traditional sense, but rather a simple code intended to provide an extra layer of security for credit card transactions.

There is no such thing as a “hash key” in credit cards. However, if you are referring to a scenario where a merchant or service provider asks you to enter your credit card number followed by a hash symbol (#) or any other symbol, it is important to verify the legitimacy of the request and ensure that you are using a secure and trusted payment gateway before entering any sensitive information.

You would simply input the 16-digit number on the front of your card, without any spaces or dashes between the digits.

Depending on the payment gateway or application you are using, you may also be asked to provide additional information such as the card expiration date, cardholder name, and card security code (CVV or CSC).

The number “1234-5678-9012-3456” is an example of a credit card number with 16 digits, where the first 4 digits represent the issuer identification number (IIN) or bank identification number (BIN), and the remaining digits represent the account number and the check digit for error detection.

It’s worth noting that credit card numbers are typically formatted in groups of four digits, as shown in this example.

However, when entering a credit card number online or over the phone, the system may prompt you to enter the number without any spaces or dashes between the digits.

It’s important to follow the instructions provided by the merchant or service provider to ensure that your payment is processed correctly.

Hashing a credit card typically refers to the process of transforming the credit card number into a fixed-size, unique code (called a hash) using a cryptographic algorithm.

This hash code is different from the original credit card number and cannot be easily reversed to obtain the original number.

Hashing credit card numbers can be used as a security measure to protect sensitive information from being stolen or exposed.

For example, when a merchant receives a credit card payment, they may hash the credit card number and store only the hash value in their database instead of the actual credit card number.

This way, if the merchant’s database is compromised, the attacker would not be able to obtain the original credit card numbers of the customers.

However, it’s worth noting that hashing credit card numbers is not a foolproof method of protection, as there are ways to crack hashcodes and retrieve the original data.

Therefore, additional security measures such as encryption and access controls should be implemented to ensure the safety of sensitive data.

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Credit card numbers are sensitive and important pieces of information that should be protected and used with caution.

When entering a credit card number, it’s important to follow the instructions provided by the merchant or service provider and to only enter the information on secure and trusted payment gateways or applications.

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