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Summary.

The revival of the discussion about development models can be found at the end of the 1990s, when it became clear that the orthodox adjustment measures applied in Latin America did not achieve the expected results, which raised doubts about the conception and orientation that guided these processes. The issue is once again on the table in the context of the global financial crisis and of the capitalist system in general.

This article aims to analyze the concept of development from the most relevant theoretical positions in the second half of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century. The methodology used to address the study was theoretical review and analysis, content analysis and biblio-hemerographic analysis, foreseeing a time horizon between 1960 and 2008, focusing the analysis on the models operationalized in this period, in addition to including other approaches. alternatives, given their theoretical and epistemic importance. The results show that there has been a strong emphasis on the idea of economic growth as an expression of development, which has motivated responses from other angles.

The integration of various factors that contribute to enrich the concept and impact the policies and actors involved in it is what it concludes on the need to conceive development as a highly complex process.

Development concept, development theory, development models are some of the topics discussed.

The concept of development is related to many theoretical positions.

There is an abstract

At the end of the 1990s, it became evident that the orthodox adjustment measures applied in Latin America did not achieve the desired results, which caused doubts about the concept and orientation that guided these processes. The theme has been brought up again in the context of the crisis of global finances and the capitalist system. The goal of the article is to analyze the concept of development seen from the most relevant theoretical positions in the second half of the 20th century.

The study's methodology included theoretical review and analysis, content analysis, and biblio-hemerographic analysis, which focused on the period between 1960 and 2008, and other alternative approaches, which included the importance of the theme and the theoretical importance of the period. The results show that there is an emphasis on economic growth as an expression of development, which has motivated some responses from other angles.

The study concludes that there is a need to conceive development as a highly complex process, which demands the integration of diverse factors that contribute to enriching the concept and affecting the policies and actors involved in it.

Key words are development, development concept, development theory, and development models.

Accepted: 06-15-10.

1. The introduction is about something.

In its World Development Report 1999-2000, titled At the Threshold of the 21st Century, the World Bank (WB, 2000) assumes a self-critical position regarding its conception of development, which contrasts with the perspective that it had traditionally held in reports above, usually centered around economic growth, market freedom and the minimal state.

The report addresses a number of aspects that place the notion of development at the center of the debate, and that it cannot be considered unique, incomplete or dogmatic, and that there is a complexity in its environment determined by the context, the historical moment and the geographical location.

The debate should abandon the discussion on the role of the State and the market and the search for global and unique policy solutions to focus on achieving sustainable improvements in the quality of the people.

It shows the experience of the application of development policies worldwide, showing the positive results in some countries and the negative results in others.

Regardless of whether or not you agree with the above statements, this reference is important because, first of all, at the dawn of the 21st century, the World Bank itself, one of the agencies responsible for the application of security measures, structural adjustment in Latin America, recognizes that development depends on various factors, their relationships and the transformations that these produce over time.

It tries to break with what has historically been the answer to the question about what development is, conceived from economic science and linked to the problems, arguments and reflections of each one of the schools of thought in this area over time.

An important discussion is opened that allows to approach the concept of development beyond the biologist positions of evolution and process and the traditional ones that reduce it to problems of economic growth and wealth redistribution.

The global financial crisis and the capitalist system in general have given rise to a new impetus, which requires a review of previous experience and analytical bases.

The purpose of this article is to analyze the concept of development according to the most relevant theoretical positions during the second half of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st.

The review and theoretical analysis, content analysis and biblio-hemerographic analysis were used to address the proposed objective. A time horizon is foreseen between 1960 and 2008; that is, the study will focus on the models operationalized in this period structuralist and neoliberal, including some proposals not applied due to their theoretical and epistemic importance neostructuralism, sustainable development, development on a human scale, human development, capabilities approach. It doesn't mean that they are the only ones; other proposals will not be addressed, first for reasons of space and second for theoretical delimitation, which does not mean that they lack relevance.

2.

Structuralism and inward development.

The creation of the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean in the 1940s was related to the emergence of structuralism, a theoretical current of an economic and social nature that is important to development theory.

For the structuralists, the concept of development is the result of the evolution of a set of ideas that different economic tendencies have given to the specific problems of capitalism and that takes hold after the end of the Second World War, as a concern of the Organization of the United Nations for responding to the situation of countries after the war.

The problems that manifest themselves from the underdeveloped countries of Latin America and the new independent countries of Africa and Asia are related to their concern about the excessive dependence on world trade as long as they specialize in the export of raw materials.

The first concept related to the idea of ​​development for the structuralists is that of wealth; for classical authors school of thought founded by Adam Smith in the 18th century and consolidated by John Stuart Mill in the 19th century wealth is an indicator of the prosperity or decline of nations and they consider it as that set of goods that a country can obtain, given the nature of its soil, its climate and its situation with respect to other countries (Sunkel and Paz, 1977; De la Peña, 1979).

This conception of wealth is related to a certain way of perceiving society and its functioning, thought of as a group of individuals or economic units that act according to immutable laws and principles, a conception that is supported by the individualist and liberal philosophy of law and State spread in the 18th century, based on the system of free economic competition and the principles of individual freedom, private property, private succession of the material means of production and freedom of contracts.

If society is organized according to an individual natural order that allows optimal use of the available productive resources, wealth can be achieved.

The idea of development is associated with the idea of economic evolution that comes after the appearance of biological theses of Darwinian evolutionism. The idea of a natural sequence of change, of gradual andSpontaneous Variation, is what this conception of the economic process implies.

The optimal social organization would be the one that allows the creation of favorable conditions for natural selection to operate and guarantees the greatest competition among the participants in the system. Competition is the ideal ethical support base to achieve natural social justice because it guarantees the reduction of disturbing factors.

Closely linked to the aforementioned school of thought, progress is being made towards the idea of ​​economic progress that emerged from the spread of the industrial revolution and technical progress in Europe and which can be summarized as the expression, in the economic sphere, of the idea of absolute rationality as a possibility of human functioning. Thus, in the desire for progress, science, arts, letters and lifestyle advanced, with inventions, discoveries and the influx of precious metals from the colonies playing a significant role, as well as new primary products. that were incorporated into the Western consumption pattern, so progress arose from a process of concentration, colonial exploitation, and exclusion (De la Peña, 1979; Maza Zavala, 2006a).

It was thought that the solution to social problems would be achieved through expansion of production, thanks to the effects of permanent scientific and technological change. The key to modernization was the application of science to productive activities, the introduction of new techniques and methods, and the renewal of social structures and ways of life.

Four postulates stand out from this position: first, the irrelevance of State intervention in the economy, as long as the incorporation of technique into the productive process is permanent; second, the resolution of the ideological problem and the economic concern through science; third, the central problem of social organization is administrative and not political; and fourth, the operation and functioning of the world economy through a scientific mechanism, within which the allocation of resources and the geographical distribution of the activity, according to the capacities of the countries, guarantee the greatest well-being for all (De la Pena, 1979).

The idea of world order, as well as the idea of international division of labor based on relative advantages of each country, came about. The ideas of European racial superiority, manifest destiny and the leading role of imperial centers in world events were given rise to by this set of proposals.

In this way, the rise of capitalism was closely linked around this conception, in such a way that technological innovation was conceived as a motor and phenomenon inherent to the system, which allowed neoclassical economists to theorize about other elements the behavior of the units individual economics; the role of markets and the price system as an instrument for the allocation of productive resources; the role of remuneration to productive factors, disregarding the laws of the system's dynamics (Sunkel and Paz, 1977; Maza Zavala, 2006a).

In the first decades of the 20th century, the term economic growth was used to refer to the interest of preserving the stability, equilibrium and expansion of the capitalist system and the preservation of the world status quo. It was thought that the highest step in human evolution had been reached, which is why they focused their concern on balance problems and on the study of the crisis its origin, frequency and timing, closely linked to concern for unemployment and the occupation of labor to anticipate its appearance and solve the disturbances it caused (Betancourt, 2004; Bustelo, 1999; De la Peña, 1979; Sunkel and Paz, 1977).

The current that is linked to this approach is one that explains development as a succession of stages that any society must go through and which are the same as those seen in developed countries. According to these ideas, supported by Rostow and Germani, cited by Maza Zavala (2006a), underdevelopment would constitute an intermediate phase in the sequence or necessary path towards development, a conception that motivated important efforts in modernization policies, understood as the rationalization of the values, attitudes, institutions and organizations of developed societies (Cf: Sunkel and Paz, 1977; De la Peña, 1979).

This position, which could be considered as progress in explaining the reasons for underdevelopment as a moment in the discontinuous evolution of a society, represents an advance with respect to growth theories, which postulate a continuous evolution of the phenomenon, but, according to Sunkel and Paz (1977) lack the analytical capacity to explain the passage from one stage to another; that is, the process of structural change.

In the middle of this century, the concept of development arising from scientific materialism began to be used to propose a body of economic doctrine in which the idea of the dialectical relationship of social phenomena is the main focus. The existence of socialist countries and the hostile internal and external environment that the most backward nations faced in the postwar period affect its appearance. Growth theories have the principles of economic equilibrium broken by elements.

The idea of development was formulated by two different thoughts.

The first of these was developmentalism, made up of supporters of a reformed capitalism who proposed the need for a profound reform, as salvation for the system in crisis, based on accelerating development in backward countries through industrialization and, through of it, manage to alleviate social pressure with the modification of its international behavior (Cf. De la Pea was published in 1979.

This position, known as Structuralism, supported and proposed by ECLAC and its founder Raúl Prebisch, and developed by him and his closest collaborators between the 40s and 50s of the 20th century among them Celso Furtado, Anibal Pinto, Jorge Ahumada, Juan Noyola Vásquez, Albert Hisrchman, Aldo Ferrer and Osvaldo Sunkel, among others carry out their analysis of underdevelopment from the center-periphery concept, which allowed explaining the growing inequality in international economic relations, as well as the heterogeneity and structural weakness of the productive systems and the social structures of the periphery. The theory of the deterioration of the terms of trade of primary products versus manufactured products, questioned the validity of the international division of labor scheme that assigned to the periphery the role of producer and exporter of primary products as an effective mechanism to achieve development ( Cf: Guillén, 2006; Maza Zavala, 2006a, 2006b; Furtado, 1996; Pirela, 1990).

The strategy proposed to overcome these imbalances was known as Import Substitution Industrialization, originally intended to empower underdeveloped countries to overcome the primary export model, overcome the crisis of the outward growth model, and create a strong domestic market as the main driver of growth. economic activity; that is, to create a model of inward development or endogenous development (Cf: Sunkel and Paz, 1977; Furtado, 1996; Iglesias, 1993; Maza Zavala, 2006b).

The Marxist one is based on the need to control and rationalize the evolution of the economy in an appropriate social and political context to establish socialism as the final goal. Evolutionary change and revolutionary can contribute to the achievement of this objective, so developmentalism supposes reforms that would come closer to this goal.

De la Pea was recorded in 1979.

This current is the result of the influence of Cepalino Structuralism, which places emphasis on structural reforms, on the role of the State as a guide, promoter and planner of the process, and on the transformation of the modalities of external financing and international trade.

The definition of an adequate methodological framework for approaching the phenomenon that would allow it to be approached from a structural, historical and totalizing point of view, focused on analysis and explanation and not on description was also proposed.

Development and under development should be understood as a single system, of partial but interdependent structures, differentiated from one another in that the first is dominant and the second depends on the character of the environment. The fundamental problem of an underdeveloped structure is the need to overcome the state of dependency, transform its structure to obtain a greater capacity for growth and reorient its economic system to satisfy the objectives of society as a whole.

Thus, development is conceived as a process of deliberate social change, whose ultimate objective is the equalization of social, political and economic opportunities, both at the national level and in relations with other more advanced societies, which places the accent on the action, in the instruments of political power and in the power structures themselves for the orientation, effectiveness, intensity and nature of the change.

This analytical orientation was known as the Dependency Theory or Latin American Social Science, where intellectuals such as Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Theotonio Dos Santos, Vania Bambirra, André Gunder Frank and Enzo Felletto, among others, stood out (Cf: Sunkel and Paz, 1977; Pirela, 1990; Guillén, 2006).

The idea of development stems from all the theoretical elaboration that took place in the decades from the 1950s to the 1980s. The collapse of real socialism and the foreign debt crisis will cause renewed liberal ideas to reappear, giving rise to the new liberalism, single thought. It would give rise to the search for different alternatives, which try to overcome the characteristic economist reductionism of the new position, trying to incorporate concern for social and environmental problems that have arisen as a consequence of the implementation of both models.

There are 3.

Neoliberalism and development as growth.

The root and origin of Neoliberalism and its conception of development, as its name suggests, must be found in liberalism, although its rise in the Latin American region in the 1980s and 1990s was marked by what was known as Washington Consensus, a sort of recipe book prepared by the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the United States Treasury Secretariat as economic policy instruments that the governments of the area had to execute to guarantee the payment of economic commitments and to be able to access financing later that the external indebtedness would cause a crisis.

Adam Smith founded the classical school and published his works Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Investigation of the Causes and Nature of the Wealth of Nations.

The classics were interested in long-term growth and its causes, consequences, and prospects. The main engine of growth and wealth of nations was theAccumulation of capital.

The nucleus of the economic system was the idea of the market and the optimal result, which was the center of his analysis. The classics are guided by data offered by the market and are shaped by successive approaches to it. In these decisions, although the individual acts for his own interest (homo economicus), he contributes to shaping the quantity and type of goods that need to be produced, operating a device specific to the economic system the invisible hand that acts as order and law. natural in the apparent disorder of economic life; In other words, a mechanism inherent to its own nature operates, so its results, if there are no institutional obstacles that prevent the free decision of individuals to obtain a maximum advantage, are optimal, thus guiding how much, when and how to produce ( Sunkel and Paz, 1977; Bustelo, 1999; Betancourt, 2004; Maza Zavala, 2006a).

The market fosters the division of labor, which leads to a greater skill of the worker, saving time and technical innovation to facilitate and shorten the work, in addition to reducing the work of many men to few. Increased productivity and investment result in an increase in production.

In this way, the classics see the accumulation of capital as the main factor of growth, on which the expansion of the market, the degree of social division of labor and the increase in wages depend, which allow an increase in national income and income. the labor supply (Betancourt, 2004; Bustelo, 1999; CLAT, 1993; Sunkel and Paz, 1977).

The basics of classical thought and the platform on which the later proposals known as neoclassicals are developed goes from the 1870s to the 1930s.

The development of analytical instruments that can explain the classical conception in a more satisfactory way is the fundamental interest of the neoclassical school. They ignored interest in growth in favor of an almost exclusive concern with static and short-term issues.

Micro economic analysis and issues in the sphere of circulation were the focus of the interest of the neoclassicals. They also replaced the classical labor theory of value with a new subjective approach to value based on utility and scarcity, as well as a theory of distribution based on marginal factor productivities and a savings function determined by the interest rate. , different from the classical and Marxist link between distribution and savings, giving rise to mathematical economics (Betancourt, 2004; Anderson, 2000; Bustelo, 1999; CLAT, 1994).

The perfect competition model was the only theoretical approximation to reality that could be found in a logical structure that sought to capture its essentials and reinforce the principle of the invisible hand.

Rational economic agents always try to maximize or minimize an objective function, be it profit, utility or productivity, and this model assumes that they are. It also presumes that information costs are zero; that is, that said agents have full knowledge of the variables and processes they manage, also assuming that prices are flexible both upwards and downwards and that production factors are free to go from one occupation to another or from one sector. from one economy to another. It also assumes that both supply and demand are perfectly atomized and that economic agents are not allowed to use power or force.

If all these assumptions are validated in an economy X, then the price will be unique, the supply and demand will be in equilibrium, the marginal cost will be equal to the marginal income and this to the price, the profit will reach the maximum and the marginal will be zero, the saving will equal investment balancing the interest rate, the demand for labor will be equal to the supply it will be at full employment and the quantity of goods and services produced will be the highest possible, equitably available to all who participate in the market. process (Cf: Betancourt, 2004; Bustelo, 1999; Gómez, 1998).

The goal of the micro economic analysis was to present a theory of the consumer that started from methodological individualism and defended the rationality of the consumer as Homo economicus that seeks to maximize his advantage. The break with the classical tradition shows atomistic bias against theholistic approach and consumer sovereignty against the supremacy of supply.

On the other hand, the marginalist analysis made it possible to defend simple, expressive and modeling approaches: the consumer increases his demand until the marginal utility is annulled, the salary equals the marginal productivity of labor, the companies maximize their profits when the income marginal is equal to marginal cost (Anderson, 2000; Bustelo, 1999; Gómez, 1998).

The free play of the forces of supply and demand can be found in the perfect logic of the market, where equilibrium prices can guarantee an optimal allocation of resources. The dynamics and the historical dimensions of economic processes were excluded from the belief that the market should lead the economy towards equilibrium.

In this sense, the criticism of the neoclassical tradition is given, then, by the abandonment of the classical and Marxist concern for growth, for not considering collective phenomena and non-rational preferences in its microeconomic analysis, for its extreme confidence in the logic of the market that leads to not considering its dysfunctions or failures, because its theory of distribution based on marginal productivities is isolated from sociopolitical relations and is reduced to simple price formation, and for neglecting demand policies, necessary to maintain employment acceptance of Say's Law2 (Bustelo, 1999; CLAT, 1994).

The time variable was eliminated from the analysis since the insistence on the balance of supply and demand in the markets was the only explicit theory of development.

However, implicitly, a conception of development was assumed as a gradual, continuous, harmonious and cumulative process of growth; gradual, influenced by the Darwinian theses of social evolution; continuous because the economic nature, particularly innovation and technical diffusion, lacked fissures; harmonious, because it benefits all income recipients the market itself generates a tendency towards full employment and an increase in real wages; and cumulative, since growth spreads, like an oil stain, between one sector and another (Bustelo, 1999; CLAT, 1994).

4. There is neo-structuralism and development within.

The renewal of structuralist-Cepalino thought occurs because of the adverse results that the application of the Washington Consensus produced in the Latin American region, in the rejection of such policies and in the need to recover the path of development to overcome what was known Like the lost decade.

Neostructuralism is based on the idea of trying to correct, formalize and integrate assumptions to make them more rigorous.

Neostructuralism arose as another theoretical aspect different from the orthodox neoliberal adjustment approach, trying to provide solutions by way of the heterodox stabilization and adjustment programs of the eighties () But to the extent that many of the adjustment plans of one and If another characteristic failed and the crisis persisted, neostructuralism began to resort to and draw on the positive legacy of a truly Latin American ideology on development: structuralism () (Neostructuralism) aims to contribute to the enrichment and updating of said line of thought, concentrating the intellectual effort both in the outline of a renewed development strategy from within, in its global dimension, and in the macro, micro and meso-economic operational elaboration of a selective nature (Ramos and Sunkel, 1995:17-18).

In this framework, while neoliberalism is characterized by an individualist, utilitarian and ahistorical vision (Homo economicus), neostructuralism is based on a sociocultural and historical approach (Homo sociologicalus), nourishing itself, with postmodernist eclecticism, from all scientific disciplines and currents of thought. thought capable of contributing relevant elements, including neoclassical theory.

Neostructuralism interprets the economic behavior of individual agents according to historical contexts, of a socio- and institutional nature, in which they formulate their options and develop their behaviors. It considers that individuals are structured in social groups in a variety of public and private institutions, which develop a set of values and behavior rules over time. These forms of social organization are true cultures that limit and guide individual behavior.

Fernando Fajnzylber and Osvaldo Sunkel are two theorists who have proposed ideas for the ECLAC document. The priority task was for Latin America and the Caribbean. Later, these ideas will be deepened and complemented in the documents Sustainable Development: Productive Transformation, Equity and Environment (Cepal, 1991), Education and Knowledge: Axis of Productive Transformation with Equity (Cepal, 1992) and Equity and Productive Transformation: An Integrated Approach (Cepal, 1996), closing this corollary Equity, Development and Citizenship (Cepal, 2000), where the Neostructural proposal reaches its greatest theoretical configuration3.

The central contributions of Fernando Fajnzylber can be divided into two aspects: on the one hand, the theory of the Black Box of technical progress and, on the other, that of the Empty Box of dynamism with equity (Fajnzylber, 1983, 1990; Bustelo, 1999; Fernández -Muro, 2004; Olivé, 2004; Torres, 2006).

The industrialization experience in Latin America is analyzed by Fajnzylber in order to arrive at the concepts. The previous industrial pattern was truncated and distorted, and he proposes a new industrialization based on the expansion of the social alliances that sustained the previous pattern, shifting the center of interest towards the majority social sectors.

It is not about promoting exports instead of substituting imports; the objective is to build an endogenous nucleus capable of joining the process of technological revitalizing as a condition for penetrating and maintaining itself in the international market.

The Black Box concept is the result of an analysis that shows that the efforts of innovation and technological development are not distributed uniformly throughout the production activity, but rather are concentrated in the Manufacturing sector.

Industrial production in industrialized countries is between a quarter and a third of GDP and research and development expenses absorb more than 10% of resources, which explains the greater demand for these products compared to natural resources.

There are branches within the manufacturing sector that have experienced the greatest post-war growth and that register greater dynamism in international trade, so it is necessary to identify and separate the sectors that have the greatest responsibility.

The growth of total factor productivity is dependent on the role of sectoral breakdown, since there are manufacturing branches that are carriers of greater technological content than others.

The role of micro or sectoral aspects in opposition to and criticism of the traditional macroeconomic analysis of growth focused on short-term indicators, supported by the current, for which sectoral disaggregation is useless to achieve its related analytical purposes.

The overcoming of this deficiency is expressed in the need to disaggregate to open the Black Box of technical progress.

The Empty Box shows that the majority of the countries in the Latin American region show growth patterns that are incompatible with equity. Using a four-box diagram, where he crosses two axes one corresponding to the average economic growth of industrialized countries between 1965-1984, and the other to an indicator of equity in income distribution between 1970-1984shows that of the total Several Latin American countries register below-average growth rates and regressive equity standards, while others grow above the average, but their distributive pattern is even more unequal than the average for industrialized countries; Furthermore, it shows that no Latin American economy grows equitably. Fajnzylber calls the empty box syndrome after this last empirical finding.

The lack of technical progress and the lack of original thought based on reality are the main features of the Latin American development process.

The empty box would be directly linked to what could be called the inability to open the black box of technical progress, an issue that is influenced by the origin of Latin American societies, their institutions, the cultural context and a set of economic and structural factors. , whose link with the sociopolitical milieu is complex, but indisputable (Fajnzylber, 1990:4).

Sunkel wants to move from development inwards of the structuralist strategy and development out of the neoliberals to development from within as the central axis of the Neostructural proposal. This approach finds it in Prebisch's studies.

It is clear that in his original approach, he distinguished both stages in terms of compensation for the propagation of the technique that came from outside, and that had become insufficient, through the development of the said stimulus, from within.

The change suggests a difference. The idea of an internal process of industrialization capable of creating an internal progress mechanism for the generation of technical and productivity improvements was conceived by Prebisch.

It was about assimilating and not copying technical progress, placing the accent on the ways of producing, and that's what the offer was about.

However, inward development placed the emphasis on demand, leading to a strategy based on the expansion of the internal market that reproduced the consumption and production patterns of the centers, supported by import substitution, and oriented a narrow internal demand. and biased, which configured a pattern of unequal income distribution (Sunkel, 1995; Bustelo, 1999; Fernández-Muro, 2004; Olivé, 2004).

For Sunkel (1995), development from within supposes different implications, whose bases, raised by Fajnzylber, estimate, first, an effort to configure a functional productive structure, establishing fundamental industries to create and promote a basic endogenous nucleus that leads the new process. industrialization, accumulation, generation and diffusion of technical progress and increased productivity.

It is necessary to reinforce internal creativity after this founding stage through interrelation and participation of various actors and socio-productive agents. The concept of the nucleus in real terms would be established once this level of interaction and integration has been achieved.

The previous approach was linked to the transition from a neoliberal orientation to an expansive readjustment that guarantees a transition towards development, the consolidation of democracy and the overcoming of poverty.

The difference between expansive readjustment and recessive adjustment is key. Although the first one seeks to free up resources for the payment of the external debt, the expansive readjustment has as its objective the payment of the social debt, giving priority to both short-term and long-term actions aimed at reducing the extent and intensity of poverty through distributive changes necessary to reach a socially acceptable level of equity, combining a selective restrictive policy of demand with a selective policy of expansion of supply to achieve their reciprocal adjustment (Sunkel, 1995; Bustelo, 1999).

In such a way that neostructuralism, although it assumes the concept of development proposed by structuralism as a deliberate process of social change, whose ultimate objective is the equalization of social, political and economic opportunities, adds the need to fill in the empty box of dynamism and growth with equity, through the achievement of international competitiveness based on technical progress and the incorporation of intellectual value to natural resources, which imposes the need to open the black box of technical progress for the achievement of the virtuous circle of equity and competitiveness.

The achievement of equity, social justice and the deepening of democracy would be linked to the transition from a structuralist inward development and a neoliberal outward development to a development from within, around an endogenous process of accumulation, absorption and generation. of technical progress that guides a new industrialization process based on supply and oriented not only to internal demand, but also towards exports.

There are 5. The development of sustainable.

The United Nations Organization led the way in incorporating environmental concern into the development agenda. Different authors (Reed, 1996; Jiménez Herrero, 1997; De Lisio, 1999) place the most immediate antecedents in the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm in 1972, although others (Gabaldón, 2006) place it at late 19th century and early 20th century, the product of a process where the incipient ecological science, the conservation of natural resources and the protection of the environment came together, which attracted the attention of professionals from different disciplines and members of civil society.

Its theoretical conformation was the product, firstly, of the pressures and demands of civil movements worldwide for governments to face the growing environmental crises and, secondly, of the existing tensions between the development perspectives of the industrialized North and the developing south (Reed, 1996; Jiménez Herrero, 1997; De Lisio, 1999).

In addition to the Stockholm meeting, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, also known as the Earth Summit and Eco 92; likewise, the World Conservation Strategy published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (UICIN), the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF) in 1980, and the report offered by the World Commission for Environment and Development (WCED) in 1987, known as the Brundtland Commission (Cf.

Jiménez Herrero, 1997; Reed, 1996

These meetings and reports provided important elements for the conformation of the Sustainable Development approach: the acceptance that the pollution caused by the industrialization of the countries of the North imposed restrictions on the progress of developing countries; acceptance of the southern approach that poverty, not industrialization, was the cause of the developing world's environmental problems for which economic growth should offer the main answer; linking current and future human well-being with the sustainable administration of the planet's natural heritage; the establishment of the responsibility of the current generation with respect to the protection of natural resources and the environment to guarantee development opportunities for future generations; and the recognition of the need to reorder the structures of international trade and capital flows to ensure greater influence of developing countries in these relations, reshaping the search for sustainability within the framework of the global economy (Reed , 1996; Jiménez Herrero, 1997; De Lisio, 1999).

Although the achievements of these events, especially Eco 92, were considerable, they did not alter the political conditions that would facilitate the transition of the nations of the world towards the new strategy, nor did they modify the traditional conceptions of development as economic growth, nor did they include, in addition to the economic and environmental, the social dimension within the global scheme of discussion on sustainability.

However, it is important to note that its conceptual foundations have been enriched by an inter and transdisciplinary intellectual effort, in addition to provoking responses that try to change the traditional strategic perspective of these agencies from the top down for another one more linked to the protagonists and actors from the bottom up, as is the case of the Operational Approach to Sustainable Development, sponsored by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUNC) and the United Nations Program Organization for the Environment (UNAMP) (Cf. Jiménez Herrero, 1997; Reed, 1996; and De Lisio, 1999).

Thus, the common point shared by the different authors is basically taken from the 1987 Brundtland report, which defines sustainable development as a human course capable of satisfying the needs and aspirations of the present generation, without compromising the possibilities and abilities of future generations. to satisfy theirs (Reed, 1996; Jiménez Herrero, 1997; De Lisio, 1999; Castellano, 2005; Gabaldón, 2006).

Specifically.

Development (sustainable) has people as its central point, in the sense that its main objective is the improvement of man's quality of life, and it is based on conservation in the sense that it is conditioned by the need to respect the capacity of nature for the provision of resources and services for the maintenance of life.

The improvement of the quality of human life is what sustainable development means.

More recently, Meadows et al. (1992) and Gladwin and Krause (1995), cited by Castellano (2005), extend this definition; In the first case, they argue that sustainable development is one that can persist across generations, looks forward enough, is flexible enough, and wise enough not to undermine its physical or social support systems.

In the second case, they define sustainable development as the process of achieving human development in an inclusive way in time and space, connected ecological, economic and social interdependence, equitable intergenerational, intragenerational and interspecies, prudent technological, scientific and political duties of care and prevention and safe to be safe from chronic threats and protection against harmful disruptions.

The definition of sustainable development involves three components: an economic, social and environmental one. The economic one expresses the demand that societies follow paths of sustainable economic growth that generates a real increase in income and improves distribution; the social dimension presupposes equity ensuring the access of all people to minimum levels of health, education, security, housing, etc. and the interdependence of human communities as a requirement for an acceptable quality of life; the environmental component is based on maintaining the integrity and long-term productivity of the systems that maintain the environmental infrastructure and life on the planet (Cf: Reed, 1996; Jiménez Herrero, 1997).

There are 6. Human development on a scale.

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