When to round out?

Today’s post is excerpted from the brand-new edition of the Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3B) available now in print, PDF eBook, and eBundle from ASA as well as a combo pack with new edition of the Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25B).

The round out is a slow, smooth transition from a normal approach attitude to a landing attitude, gradually rounding out the flightpath to one that is parallel with, and within a very few inches above, the runway. When the airplane, in a normal descent, approaches within what appears to be 10 to 20 feet above the ground, the round out or flare is started. This is a continuous process until the airplane touches down on the ground.

As the airplane reaches a height above the ground where a change into the proper landing attitude can be made, back-elevator pressure is gradually applied to slowly increase the pitch attitude and angle of attack (AOA). This causes the airplane’s nose to gradually rise toward the desired landing attitude. The AOA is increased at a rate that allows the airplane to continue settling slowly as forward speed decreases.

When the AOA is increased, the lift is momentarily increased and this decreases the rate of descent. Since power normally is reduced to idle during the round out, the airspeed also gradually decreases. This causes lift to decrease again and necessitates raising the nose and further increasing the AOA. During the round out, the airspeed is decreased to touchdown speed while the lift is controlled so the airplane settles gently onto the landing surface. The round out is executed at a rate that the proper landing attitude and the proper touchdown airspeed are attained simultaneously just as the wheels contact the landing surface.

The rate at which the round out is executed depends on the airplane’s height above the ground, the rate of descent, and the pitch attitude. A round out started excessively high must be executed more slowly than one from a lower height to allow the airplane to descend to the ground while the proper landing attitude is being established. The rate of rounding out must also be proportionate to the rate of closure with the ground. When the airplane appears to be descending very slowly, the increase in pitch attitude must be made at a correspondingly slow rate.

Visual cues are important in flaring at the proper altitude and maintaining the wheels a few inches above the runway until eventual touchdown. Flare cues are primarily dependent on the angle at which the pilot’s central vision intersects the ground (or runway) ahead and slightly to the side. Proper depth perception is a factor in a successful flare, but the visual cues used most are those related to changes in runway or terrain perspective and to changes in the size of familiar objects near the landing area, such as fences, bushes, trees, hangars, and even sod or runway texture. Focus direct central vision at a shallow downward angle from 10° to 15° toward the runway as the round out/flare is initiated. Maintaining the same viewing angle causes the point of visual interception with the runway to move progressively rearward as the airplane loses altitude. This is an important visual cue in assessing the rate of altitude loss. Conversely, forward movement of the visual interception point indicates an increase in altitude and means that the pitch angle was increased too rapidly, resulting in an over flare. Location of the visual interception point in conjunction with assessment of flow velocity of nearby off-runway terrain, as well as the similarity of appearance of height above the runway ahead of the airplane (in comparison to the way it looked when the airplane was taxied prior to takeoff), is also used to judge when the wheels are just a few inches above the runway.

The pitch attitude of the airplane in a full-flap approach is considerably lower than in a no-flap approach. To attain the proper landing attitude before touching down, the nose must travel through a greater pitch change when flaps are fully extended. Since the round out is usually started at approximately the same height above the ground regardless of the degree of flaps used, the pitch attitude must be increased at a faster rate when full flaps are used; however, the round out is still be executed at a rate proportionate to the airplane’s downward motion.

Once the actual process of rounding out is started, do not push the elevator control forward. If too much back-elevator pressure was exerted, this pressure is either slightly relaxed or held constant, depending on the degree of the error. In some cases, it may be necessary to advance the throttle slightly to prevent an excessive rate of sink or a stall, either of which results in a hard, drop-in type landing.

The FAA’s Airplane Flying Handbook describes the flare as “a slow, smooth transition from a normal approach attitude to a landing attitude, gradually rounding out the flightpath to one that is parallel with, and within a very few inches of, the runway.” Applying back-pressure to the yoke slowly raises the airplane’s nose and increases its angle of attack. The steeper angle between the wings and the relative wind increases lift, and the airplane’s descent slows as airspeed bleeds off. The wings approach their critical angle of attack in the flare and, ideally, stop flying just after the main wheels touch the surface.

How does a student learn to coordinate that transition at just the right speed and height above the runway? Practice, practice, practice. But flying an entire lap around the pattern for another three-second chance at perfection can be demoralizing for a budget-conscious student. If you struggle with timing the flare, you may be trying to do too much, too fast. Techniques that simplify the landing process and give you more time to focus on the flare may help you overcome this common training hurdle.

“We call it the presolo slump,” said Bob Hepp, 2016 National CFI of the Year and owner of Virginia flight school Aviation Adventures. “Why does it take so long to learn to land? The reason, I think, is because the landing is a combination of all the things that you were working toward at that point. It’s slow flight, it’s stall, it’s a ground reference maneuver. You’re changing altitudes and speed. The big difference is at altitude.”

At altitude, students practice in a nonthreatening environment, Hepp said. As students shift their focus from maneuvers to landings, they enter a high-pressure environment close to the ground. Slowing down—both by prolonging the flare and by reducing distractions that give students less time to focus—helps this new skill “click.” Hepp said training practices that do just that have helped cut the time to solo at his school’s three locations to a third of what it used to be.

“When I was taught to fly, and most other people were taught to fly, you come in and you level off two to three feet off the runway, and then you hold it off until the airplane gets into a pitch attitude that it’s ready to sink,” said Hepp. “Unless your airspeed is right on target, if you come in with a little bit of excess airspeed, then when you level off like that—now you’re in ground effect. It puts you in that two to three feet above the runway for a long time.”

When an airplane floats in ground effect, the temptation is to force the nosewheel onto the ground. Then, the mains hit and the airplane bounces back in the air. The sequence continues in a series of pilot-induced oscillations called a porpoise. “It’s not the first touch that takes the nosewheel off the airplane, it’s the second or third,” Hepp said.

Instead, instructors at Aviation Adventures teach students to bring the nose up to level about 10 feet above the runway. “Whatever speed you were coming in at—on speed, fast, or slow—the airplane will hold that attitude until it reaches a predetermined speed,” Hepp said. “If you’ve got the pitch level, you’re always going to be at the same speed about five feet above the runway.” That leaves a student consistently in the same place, with more vertical room to work with, Hepp said. At five feet, the student can start slowly pulling the yoke back to continue the flare.

Many instructors feel so strongly about this two-part landing technique that they use different terms to describe the level-off and the continuation of the flare. Although the FAA uses the terms roundout and flare interchangeably, some instructors see these as distinct parts of the landing sequence. In his How to Fly an Airplane Handbook, Rod Machado explains why he uses two terms instead of one. “If you have more terms available to you to define specific and distinct events in reality, then you’re more capable of describing that reality to others,” he writes. In his view, the roundout and flare are two separate actions, and they deserve the vocabulary to reflect that.

For the roundout, pull back to a level flight attitude about 10 feet above the runway. If you still have any power applied, pull the throttle back to idle at this point, too. These two actions cause the airspeed to decrease, and a normal 500-foot-per-minute descent slows to a gentler 100 to 200 feet per minute. Now the runway isn’t rising up to meet you so quickly, and you can focus on the next stage of the landing: the flare.

In this school of thought, the flare begins when the aircraft’s nose rises above level. This ensures that the airplane’s sturdier main gear will touch down first, and continues the airplane’s deceleration as it approaches the runway. “With power reduced to flight idle, you pull aft on the elevator to progressively raise the nose and reduce the airspeed while the airplane remains a foot or less above the ground,” writes Machado. As less air flows over the wings, you’ll need more back-pressure. The airplane will touch down about 150 feet past the aiming point you kept in the windscreen during final approach.

Although skilled pilots make landings that may seem like one fluid movement, chances are they’re making multiple adjustments in the flare, applying and relaxing back-pressure subtly to keep the airplane’s nosewheel off the ground. Don’t be afraid to adjust the back-pressure if you realize you’re flaring too aggressively or not enough—but do not push the elevator control forward to correct for an overaggressive flare. This can cause the airplane to strike the runway nosewheel first, and may damage the airframe. If you flared too hard, either gently relax elevator pressure or hold it constant, depending on how much correction is needed. You may need to advance the throttle slightly to keep the airplane from dropping too quickly or stalling. Or, take advantage of that always-available option: Go around.

The speed of the flare depends on the airplane’s height above the ground, rate of descent, and pitch attitude, so different configurations will affect the look and feel of the flare in your trainer. Because a full-flap approach results in a lower pitch attitude than a no-flap approach, the nose must travel through a greater pitch change to reach the proper landing attitude. With less distance to travel, the nose can rise more slowly in a no-flap landing.

Flying an entire lap around the pattern for another three-second chance at perfection can be demoralizing for a budget-conscious student.The 35 or so instructors at Aviation Adventures teach their students to fly power-off, no-flap landings before students attempt to land with flaps or power. This method has several advantages, Hepp said: It simplifies procedures so students don’t have to focus on changing configurations, sight pictures, and airspeeds; students better learn the relationship between pitch attitude and airspeed; instructors can demonstrate the forward slip; and it gives students early practice with the basics of emergency power-off landings. When it comes to the flare, this type of landing practice gives students more time to get a feel for the transition.

Besides going around, is there anything else you can do?

Judging your height above the runway is tough. Finding the perfect spot to flare isn't an exact science, but there are some things you can do if you don't get it quite right. When you're crossing over the threshold of the runway, if you transition your focus from the aiming point to the horizon too soon, you'll likely flare too high.

A high flare can also be caused by visual illusions like a wider-than-normal runway. Click here to learn how to time your flare for a perfect landing.

You've probably gotten that sinking feeling a few times when you realize that you're too high, decelerating quickly, and approaching a stall. It feels as if your airplane is hanging in level flight well above the runway.

In most cases, going around is your best option. However, there are a few things you can do to quickly correct the situation and land safely. Here's what you can do to correct your high flare...

During a high flare, your airplane is too far above the runway with a relatively high angle-of-attack (AOA). The first thing you should do is stop making the situation worse. Avoid adding any additional back pressure. This will only continue the flare at the exact same height above the runway. If you continue holding your airplane at the same altitude, you might stall or experience a hard landing.

As you continue the landing, hold a slightly nose-high pitch attitude, and don't push forward on the yoke/stick. If you push forward, you could develop an excessive descent rate, and possibly even touch down nose-first.

You might be able to relax some back pressure during the initial phase of your recovery, but this typically only applies if your airplane is climbing slightly (ballooning), or you just added too much back pressure the first time. Do your best to keep your pitch attitude constant.

As the airplane decelerates, it will begin a slow descent towards the runway. Start adding back pressure for a second (and hopefully final) flare, and establish your normal landing attitude.

And finally, if your descent rate is slightly high, add a small amount of power to arrest your descent for a smooth touchdown.

The FAA covers faulty approaches and landings in Chapter 8 of the Airplane Flying Handbook. Here's what they have to say:

Again, if the nose must be lowered significantly or you're just not sure that you can pull the landing off, execute an immediate go around. Once you're safely back to the traffic pattern for another try, think about what went wrong on your first approach and make necessary adjustments. Was the high flare due to the visual illusion of the runway width, or was it something else?

Maybe the better question is "when did it happen to you?" We've all timed our flares incorrectly. Leave us a comment about your experience below.

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The 172 is a tricycle gear aircraft that is designed for 3-point landings. You should not be "flaring" it. They called it the "land-o-matic" for a reason: you don't need to (and should not) "flare" it.

The error to avoid is landing on the nose wheel, which is why some instructors teach "flaring", but this is really bad practice and an example of overcompensation to a fault. Teaching students to "flare" a 172 to avoid a hard nose-wheel landing is a faulty and improper teaching technique that goes against Cessna's own guidance in the POH and in their flight manuals. The only requirement is that you land mainwheels first. Other than that you should be landing in a level attitude.

When instructors tell you to look "at the end of the runway" or whatever, that advice is just as bad. The majority of runways have a grade of some sort and many have significant gradients. Looking at the end of a runway with a gradient will cause errors. Where you should be looking is at the touchdown point, not the end of the runway.

Watch the touchdown

The whole key to landing is to know EXACTLY where you are going to touchdown. The touchdown point can be recognized because every point before it will be moving downwards in your vision, and every point after it will be moving upwards.

On final, establish your glideslope and adjust your touchdown point to be on the numbers. If you cannot recognize the touchdown point, do go-rounds until you can visualize the touchdown point (also called the "aiming point"). The touchdown point is that point that stays motionless on your windshield.

If your glideslope is anywhere near correct, your attitude will be correct automatically and you will land on the main wheels. There should be ZERO need to be flaring or doing anything weird. You should set that glideslope and land on that same glideslope on the touchdown point. Once you touchdown, ease the nose wheel down. No need to "flare". Good glideslope, good touchdown point, good landing. It's that simple.